In many cultures people have two kinds of names: given or personal names (called Christian names in Christian countries), which are chosen for children by their parents, and family names or surnames, which are inherited and shared by all members of the family. There is, however, no universally recognized way of using names, and different cultures differ greatly in their use of family names.

Mononyms

Family names were not always used in the past, and people were referred to by single names or Mononyms. Turkey only began using surnames after World War I, and in some countries, including Afghanistan, Indonesia and Thailand, it is still common to refer to people by a single name. Traditionally Native Americans never used family names, and earned the right to use different names throughout their lives.

Inheritance

Family names are generally inherited from the father, although there are some exceptions.

The Minangkabau people of Indonesia inherit family names from their mothers.

Spanish and Portuguese-speaking people generally use their father’s name, but inherit both their father’s and mother’s family names. In Spanish usage, the paternal family name is placed before the maternal family name, while Portuguese usage places the paternal family name last, and allows people to add other surnames, such as those of their grandparents. Brazilian law does not limit the number of family names that a person can use, but in Portugal people can only use up to four family names.

Patronyms

Some countries use patronyms, or fathers’ names, in place of or in addition to a family name. Because patronyms are not inherited they change from one generation to the next.

Patronyms were historically used in Scandinavian tradition, and are still the most common form of surname in Iceland, where the father’s name is used with the suffixes “son” (son of) or “dóttir” (daughter of). The name of Viking explorer Erik the Red, for instance, was Erik Thorvaldsson, meaning Erik the son of Thorvald, and his son’s name was Lief Ericson, meaning Lief the son of Eric. The full name of the Icelandic singer Björk is Björk Guðmundsdóttir, meaning Björk the daughter of Guðmund. 

Patronyms are also used in Mongolia, Eritrea and Ethiopia.

Name order

The family name may be placed either before or after the given name. In Europe the family name is usually placed after the given name or names. In Asia, parts of Africa and Eastern Europe, however, the family name is placed first, and may sometimes even be placed in the middle, as for example when Chinese people place a western nickname in front of their Chinese family name.

Marriage customs

In most parts of the world women keep their own family names when they marry. However in English and Japanese traditions the woman changes her family name to that of her husband. This practice is also common in India, but optional in Pakistan. In some countries, including Hong Kong, Spanish-speaking countries, and France, the woman will retain her maiden name, but use it in conjunction with her husband’s family name.

In some cultures, including Japan and China, a man may in rare cases take his wife’s family name.

An alternative to changing names is to combine the names of the spouses. In English-speaking countries, these are hyphenated and referred to as double-barreled names (e.g. Smith-Jones), and are inherited by the children. In Germany a couple using a double-barreled name must decide which of the names the children will inherit.

Some cultures forbid marriage between people with the same family name, even if they are unrelated. While this taboo was lifted in Korea in 1997, it may be found in China, and among the Adyghe and Hmong peoples.

Gender differences

Slavic languages have different male and female forms of the same family name. For example, a Russian man may have the family name of Petrov, but his wife or daughter will use the feminine form Petrova.

Sikhs do not have different given names for men and women. Gender is indicated by the religious names Singh for a man and Kaur for a woman, and these follow the given name. If no family name is used, Singh and Kaur are used as surnames. If family names are used, Singh and Kaur become middle names.

Legal usage

Family names originated as a means of distinguishing between individuals with the same given name, and generally became more common with the development of organized government. Sometimes the legal family name used for official documents may differ from a usage name. For example, French women do not change their family name upon marriage, but may use their husbands’ family name even though it is technically illegal to do so.

Polite usage

In many cultures, a family name with an honorific is used for polite address. Examples of honorifics are Mr. and Mrs. in English and San in Japanese. Degrees of formality vary greatly from one culture to another. English-speakers consider it polite to use the family name preceded by Mr. or Mrs, while in Brazil family names are not used because everyone is addressed by a given name, even in very formal situations.

It appears that there are no general international rules for family name usage, and this brief survey is only a general introduction to this extremely complex topic.